The research behind the numbers
“What goes unreported may be just as important as what the numbers reveal.”
Every year, service members experience workplace bullying, hazing, harassment, and other forms of maltreatment. Yet formal complaints do not necessarily reflect the full prevalence of these experiences.
Government oversight reports and peer-reviewed research have identified gaps between reported incidents and survey findings, barriers to reporting, concerns about retaliation, and weaknesses in institutional responses.
Understanding these gaps is essential to evaluating whether existing accountability mechanisms adequately protect those who serve.
The hidden prevalence
Official military complaint statistics measure reported incidents, not necessarily the total number of incidents experienced by service members.
Anonymous surveys, longitudinal research, and government oversight findings provide additional insight into the prevalence of misconduct that may never reach formal reporting channels.
These sources measure different populations, time periods, and behaviors. They should be examined together while preserving their methodological differences.
More than 40%
A Millennium Cohort Study analysis involving 73,293 participants found that more than 40% reported discrimination, bullying, and/or hazing. Most reported at least one experience occurring within a military context.
Methodology: Survey responses from 2019–2021; not an annual prevalence estimate for the entire military.
Source: Carey et al., Journal of Affective Disorders, 2025 (opens in new tab)
183–299
Government Accountability Office findings documented between 183 and 299 annual hazing complaints during FY2017–FY2020. Military survey findings suggested that the underlying prevalence of hazing was substantially greater than the number of formal complaints.
Methodology: Complaints and survey estimates are not directly interchangeable measures.
Source: Government Accountability Office, GAO-22-104066 (opens in new tab)
40%
In a 2024 installation-based study, only 40% of the 35 respondents who acknowledged hazing experiences reported or confided in someone about those experiences. The research identified concerns related to anonymity, leadership reactions, and confidence in reporting.
Methodology: Small installation-based study; not representative of all service members.
Source: Berry-Cabán et al., Military Medicine, 2024 (opens in new tab)
The barriers to reporting
For service members experiencing bullying, hazing, harassment, or other mistreatment, reporting can involve difficult decisions.
Concerns about retaliation, damage to professional relationships, career consequences, confidentiality, and the effectiveness of investigative processes may discourage individuals from seeking formal accountability.
The existence of a reporting mechanism does not automatically establish that service members trust it.
Service members may worry about adverse evaluations, unfavorable assignments, professional isolation, damaged careers, or retaliation from peers or leadership. Documented retaliation should be distinguished from anticipated or perceived retaliation — both can discourage reporting, but they are different things.
Perceptions of command influence, conflicts of interest, insufficient transparency, or inadequate past responses can reduce confidence that a report will be handled fairly and effectively.
Military hierarchy, unit loyalty, close peer relationships, and stigma can make reporting feel socially costly, especially within small or tightly knit formations.
Misconduct may be minimized, rationalized as tradition, or confused with legitimate training and discipline. Lawful corrective training and legitimate leadership authority must be distinguished from prohibited maltreatment.
“A service member should never have to choose between protecting their career and reporting mistreatment.”
Government oversight
The Armed Forces maintain policies and procedures intended to prevent misconduct, receive complaints, conduct investigations, and protect service members.
However, government oversight has identified deficiencies in certain reporting, prevention, and response systems.
These findings raise questions about consistency, oversight, investigative effectiveness, and the confidence service members place in existing accountability mechanisms.
Department of Defense Inspector General — 2024
These findings concern the units and practices reviewed and should not automatically be generalized to every military organization.
These are evaluative questions, not findings that every existing system fails.
The human consequences
Research has identified associations between military bullying, hazing, institutional betrayal, and adverse psychological outcomes.
For some service members, mistreatment may be accompanied by chronic stress, anxiety, depression, feelings of isolation, diminished institutional trust, and suicidal ideation.
Perceived failures by trusted institutions to prevent or respond appropriately to mistreatment can introduce additional psychological burdens.
These relationships are complex. Mental health outcomes and suicide risk are influenced by multiple interacting factors, and the research does not establish that any particular incident caused an individual suicide attempt or death.
2.74×
A 2023 peer-reviewed study found that soldiers reporting bullying or hazing during deployment had elevated unadjusted odds of suicidal ideation. The study also examined associations with other mental health conditions.
The 2.74 figure represents an unadjusted odds ratio, not a causal estimate or a measure of absolute risk. Adjusted estimates should be presented separately.
Institutional betrayal refers to actions or failures by an institution that can worsen the experiences of people who depend on that institution for safety, support, or accountability.
Research examining military and veteran populations suggests that institutional responses to mistreatment can influence psychological well-being and trust.
Source: McAdams et al., Systematic Scoping Review, 2025 (opens in new tab)
The consequences beyond service
“Military service has an end date. The effects of mistreatment may not.”
For some service members, separation from the military does not bring an immediate end to the consequences of mistreatment experienced while serving.
Bullying, hazing, harassment, retaliation, and perceived institutional betrayal may leave psychological and social effects that persist into civilian life.
These experiences can intersect with the challenges of military transition, including changes in identity, employment, relationships, community, and access to support.
Research has identified associations between military bullying and hazing and adverse mental health outcomes, including depression, posttraumatic stress symptoms, substance use disorders, and suicidal ideation.
Other longitudinal studies demonstrate that psychological distress experienced during service can remain relevant after separation.
Understanding these consequences requires examining not only what happens while someone wears the uniform, but also what may follow them when they become a veteran.
The human cost beyond active service
Every veteran lost to suicide represents a life, a family, and a community affected by an irreversible loss.
The consequences of military service do not necessarily end at separation. Understanding the challenges veterans face, including the possible long-term effects of military mistreatment, is essential to improving prevention and support.
26,516
CY2021–CY2024 · United States veterans
According to the latest published Department of Veterans Affairs national data series, 26,516 veteran suicide deaths were reported across calendar years 2021 through 2024.
This four-year total uses the revised annual values in the 2026 annual report, Table 1. Earlier report editions contain different values. National totals for 2025 and 2026 are not yet available in the referenced report; this is not a 2021–2026 total.
Official VA 2026 National Veteran Suicide Prevention Annual Report(opens in new tab)
2021
6,667
Reported veteran suicide deaths
2022
6,699
Reported veteran suicide deaths
2023
6,662
Reported veteran suicide deaths
2024
6,488
Reported veteran suicide deaths
Four-year total: 26,516
Average: approximately 18.1 deaths per day across 1,461 calendar days
CY2021–CY2024 · Scale begins at zero · Select a bar for details
Chart scale: 0–7,000 deaths
The research connection
Military suicide is a complex, multifactorial public health challenge.
No single experience explains every suicide death. However, research has identified military bullying and hazing as experiences associated with adverse psychological outcomes, including suicidal ideation.
These findings raise important questions about the long-term consequences of military workplace mistreatment and the extent to which stronger prevention, reporting protections, and institutional responses could improve service member and veteran well-being.
Featured peer-reviewed study · JAMA Network Open, 2023
Cohort study · 1,463 combat-deployed U.S. Army soldiers
1.91×
Soldiers who reported bullying or hazing during deployment had 1.91 times the adjusted odds of suicidal ideation at follow-up compared with soldiers who did not report those experiences.
95% confidence interval: 1.17–3.13
Scale 0–3.0 · An odds ratio of 1.0 indicates no measured difference
Methodology: These estimates represent statistical associations after adjustment for measured factors. They are not absolute risk estimates and do not establish that bullying or hazing caused the observed outcomes. Suicidal ideation is distinct from suicide attempts and deaths.
Veteran relevance: At follow-up, 27.9% of respondents were separated and 4.1% retired, so the cohort extended beyond an exclusively active-duty population. It did not establish a separate veteran-specific suicide mortality estimate.
“Bullying and hazing are not merely questions of discipline or workplace culture. Research associates these experiences with outcomes that matter for service member health and well-being.”
The unanswered question
Between 2021 and 2024, the latest VA data series records more than 26,000 veteran suicide deaths.
Research has separately demonstrated associations between military bullying, hazing, and suicidal ideation.
Yet existing national suicide mortality reporting does not establish how many veterans who died by suicide previously experienced military bullying, hazing, retaliation, or institutional betrayal.
Nor does it establish how many deaths, if any, would have been prevented by different institutional responses. This represents an important gap in understanding the relationship between military workplace experiences and long-term veteran well-being.
01
Official VA data establish the reported number of veteran suicide deaths for available calendar years.
02
Peer-reviewed studies identify associations between military bullying or hazing and suicidal ideation and other mental health conditions.
03
The number or proportion of veteran suicide deaths attributable to military bullying, hazing, retaliation, or institutional betrayal has not been established.
Unanswered research question — not an established conclusion
How many veterans who died by suicide had previously experienced military workplace mistreatment—and how did institutional responses influence their subsequent well-being?
The transition compounding effect
01
Possible experiences
02
Potential transition stressors
03
Possible ongoing difficulties
Methodology: This timeline illustrates potential overlapping experiences and stressors. It is not a validated causal pathway, and the listed outcomes are not inevitable.
Additional longitudinal research
Authors: Laura Campbell-Sills, Jason D. Kautz, Caitlin Ray, Paul B. Lester, Karmel W. Choi, James A. Naifeh, Pablo A. Aliaga, Ronald C. Kessler, Murray B. Stein, Robert J. Ursano, and Paul D. Bliese
Study design: Longitudinal cohort analysis linking deployment-period surveys with later follow-up.
Population: 1,080 participants who had separated or retired from the Army; job satisfaction was assessed among 586 employed veterans.
Relevant finding: Higher average levels and larger increases in posttraumatic stress, anger, and depression during the deployment period were associated with greater post-separation stress. Anger and depression measures were also associated with reduced job satisfaction.
Important limitations: The study did not isolate bullying or hazing as a cause. Some transition difficulties may have resolved before follow-up, and some measures had not previously been validated.
Authors: Walter J. Sowden, Roland Hart, and George A. Bonanno
Study design: Prospective study with surveys approximately six months before and six months after separation.
Population: 815 U.S. Army soldiers transitioning to civilian life.
Relevant finding: Betrayal-related potentially morally injurious experiences predicted higher postseparation posttraumatic stress symptoms after adjustment for baseline symptoms, and greater reintegration difficulty beyond symptoms and combat exposure.
Important limitations: Effect sizes were modest. The study examined betrayal broadly, did not isolate nonsexual workplace bullying, hazing, or retaliation, and measured general stress-related distress rather than DSM-defined PTSD.
Authors: Mikayla McAdams, Matthew W. Henninger, Katharine Bloeser, and Kelly K. McCarron
Study design: Systematic scoping review across seven databases.
Population: Sixteen eligible publications examining institutional betrayal in military and veteran populations.
Relevant finding: The reviewed literature associated institutional betrayal with increased psychiatric symptoms and clinical features in the studied populations.
Important limitations: The literature primarily focused on military sexual trauma. A scoping review maps evidence but does not establish causation; more research on nonsexual workplace mistreatment and standardized measurement is needed.
Authors: Ben Porter, Felicia R. Carey, Kimberly A. Roenfeldt, Rudolph P. Rull, and Carl Andrew Castro
Study design: Analysis of surveys completed within one year before or after military separation.
Population: 23,887 active-duty Millennium Cohort Study participants.
Relevant finding: Symptom patterns differed by discharge character. Participants with honorable discharges did not differ in symptom levels across the study period, while those with other-than-honorable or general discharges showed progressively greater symptoms that persisted through the study period.
Important limitations: These observational patterns do not establish military mistreatment or discharge processes as causes of the observed differences.
Authors: Claire A. Hoffmire, Shelby Borowski, Brandon J. Griffin, Shira Maguen, and Dawne Vogt
Study design: Population-based longitudinal cohort using latent class growth analysis; suicidal ideation was assessed at 3, 9, 15, 21, and 27 months after separation.
Population: A post-9/11 veteran cohort transitioning out of military service.
Relevant finding: Four trajectories were identified: resilient (90.1%), delayed onset (5.0%), remitting (2.7%), and chronic (2.2%). The findings support continued assessment and early intervention during transition.
Important limitations: Suicidal ideation is distinct from suicide attempts and deaths. The study did not estimate mortality or establish military mistreatment as a cause of trajectory membership.
Citation metadata, study designs, populations, findings, and limitations checked against publication records on November 13, 2026.
When trust is broken
Military service is built upon trust, discipline, duty, and shared responsibility.
For some service members, the psychological consequences of mistreatment may be compounded when they perceive that the institution responsible for their safety failed to respond appropriately.
Institutional betrayal refers to actions or failures by trusted institutions that may worsen the experiences of individuals who depend on them.
Research examining military and veteran populations has identified associations between institutional betrayal and adverse psychological outcomes.
Although much of this literature focuses on military sexual trauma, emerging evidence concerning betrayal-related experiences and military transition raises important questions about other forms of mistreatment.
These include nonsexual workplace bullying, hazing, retaliation, command failures, and inadequate investigative responses.
“Leaving an institution does not necessarily resolve the harm experienced within it.”
The state of the evidence
What the research shows
What research is beginning to reveal
What still needs to be studied
“The absence of comprehensive research should not be confused with evidence that these consequences do not exist. Equally, documented associations should not be presented as proof of causation.”
The policy implications
The consequences of military workplace mistreatment may extend beyond the period of military service.
This raises important questions about whether existing accountability mechanisms adequately consider unresolved complaints, investigative continuity, reporting protections, and access to support during and after separation.
The Formation Accountability Project seeks to examine reforms that strengthen institutional accountability while respecting lawful command authority, due process, and military readiness.
Research into long-term outcomes can inform how military institutions identify mistreatment, respond to allegations, protect those who report misconduct, and support service members transitioning into veteran life.
Proposed policy considerations — not existing statutory requirements
01
Evaluate mechanisms for impartial investigation of serious allegations of military maltreatment.
02
Examine whether existing protections adequately address retaliation and whether gaps remain after separation.
03
Evaluate procedures for unresolved complaints when service members separate or retire.
04
Consider safeguards for preserving relevant investigative and administrative records.
05
Examine appropriate coordination of support during the military-to-veteran transition.
06
Encourage research following service members into veteran life to better understand the long-term consequences of workplace mistreatment and institutional responses.
Beyond the individual
Military effectiveness depends on discipline, cohesion, competent leadership, and confidence among those serving together.
Workplace mistreatment and inadequate institutional responses may undermine those conditions.
Potential consequences include diminished morale, erosion of leadership credibility, weakened unit relationships, reluctance to report emerging problems, and reduced organizational trust.
These potential effects should be distinguished from outcomes directly measured by the cited research.
Confidence in leadership and institutional fairness.
Relationships between service members and within units.
Potential effects on decisions to continue military service.
Organizational conditions that support effective military operations.
The path forward
The research and oversight findings presented here provide a foundation for examining how military law, investigative procedures, reporting protections, and command accountability might be strengthened.
The Formation Accountability Project seeks to evaluate reforms that protect service members while preserving lawful command authority, due process, military discipline, and operational effectiveness.
Proposed reform areas — policy proposals, not enacted protections
11 of 11 sources shown
Government oversight report · 2022
U.S. Government Accountability Office
Population: Department of Defense hazing complaints and survey evidence, principally FY2017–FY2020.
Documented 183–299 annual official hazing complaints during FY2017–FY2020; survey findings suggested substantially greater underlying prevalence.
Limitations: Complaint counts and survey estimates measure different things and are not directly interchangeable.
Inspector General review · 2024
Department of Defense Office of Inspector General
Population: Army units, climate-assessment practices, complaint records, and corrective-action processes selected for review.
Identified deficiencies in climate assessment and corrective action planning, missing bullying and hazing questions in reviewed climate surveys, and discrepancies between harassment risk indicators and formal complaints.
Limitations: Findings concern the Army units and practices reviewed and should not be generalized to every military organization.
Official national mortality report · 2026
U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Office of Suicide Prevention
Population: U.S. veterans defined as people activated for federal military service who were not currently serving at the time of death; national death-certificate data through 2024.
Table 1 reports 6,667 deaths in 2021, 6,699 in 2022, 6,662 in 2023, and 6,488 in 2024: 26,516 across CY2021–CY2024, or approximately 18.1 per day across 1,461 days.
Limitations: The report does not establish prior bullying, hazing, retaliation, institutional betrayal, or causes of individual deaths. National 2025 and 2026 totals are not yet available in this report.
Annual values and calculations checked against Table 1, page 15, on November 13, 2026.
Peer-reviewed cohort survey analysis · Journal of Affective Disorders · 2025
Carey et al.
Population: 73,293 Millennium Cohort Study participants responding during 2019–2021.
More than 40% reported discrimination, bullying, and/or hazing; most reported at least one experience in a military context.
Limitations: Survey responses from 2019–2021 are not an annual prevalence estimate for the entire military, and self-reported experiences are not equivalent to formal complaints.
Peer-reviewed cross-sectional study · Military Medicine · 2024
Berry-Cabán et al.
Population: Thirty-five respondents who acknowledged hazing experiences within a small installation-based study.
Only 40% of the 35 respondents acknowledging hazing reported or confided in someone; concerns included anonymity, leadership reactions, and confidence in reporting.
Limitations: Small installation-based sample; not representative of all service members.
Peer-reviewed longitudinal cohort study · JAMA Network Open · 2023
Laura Campbell-Sills, Xiaoying Sun, Ronald C. Kessler, Robert J. Ursano, Sonia Jain, and Murray B. Stein
Population: 1,463 combat-deployed soldiers from Army STARRS; at follow-up, 27.9% were separated and 4.1% retired.
Bullying or hazing during deployment was associated with adjusted odds ratios of 2.92 for depression, 2.59 for intermittent explosive disorder, 2.06 for substance use disorder, 1.91 for suicidal ideation (95% CI 1.17–3.13), and 1.86 for PTSD.
Limitations: Adjusted associations are not absolute risks or proof of causation. The study did not establish a separate veteran-specific suicide mortality estimate; suicidal ideation is distinct from attempts and deaths.
Metadata, population, adjusted estimates, and limitations checked November 13, 2026.
Peer-reviewed longitudinal cohort analysis · Journal of Affective Disorders · 2023
Laura Campbell-Sills et al.
Population: 1,080 participants who had separated or retired from the Army; job satisfaction was assessed among 586 employed veterans.
Higher average levels and larger increases in posttraumatic stress, anger, and depression during deployment were associated with greater post-separation stress; anger and depression measures were also associated with reduced job satisfaction.
Limitations: The study did not isolate bullying or hazing as a cause. Some transition difficulties may have resolved before follow-up, and some measures had not previously been validated.
Metadata, population, findings, and limitations checked November 13, 2026.
Peer-reviewed prospective study · Journal of Traumatic Stress · 2026
Walter J. Sowden, Roland Hart, and George A. Bonanno
Population: 815 U.S. Army soldiers surveyed approximately six months before and six months after separation.
Betrayal-related experiences predicted higher postseparation posttraumatic stress symptoms after adjustment for baseline symptoms and greater reintegration difficulty beyond symptoms and combat exposure.
Limitations: Effect sizes were modest. Betrayal was examined broadly, nonsexual workplace mistreatment was not isolated, and the measure reflected general stress-related distress rather than DSM-defined PTSD.
DOI metadata, population, findings, and limitations checked November 13, 2026.
Peer-reviewed observational cohort analysis · Depression and Anxiety · 2022
Ben Porter, Felicia R. Carey, Kimberly A. Roenfeldt, Rudolph P. Rull, and Carl Andrew Castro
Population: 23,887 active-duty Millennium Cohort Study participants with surveys within one year before or after separation.
Symptom patterns differed by discharge character; progressively greater symptoms among participants with other-than-honorable or general discharges persisted through the study period.
Limitations: Observational differences do not establish military mistreatment or discharge processes as causes.
Metadata, population, findings, and limitations checked November 13, 2026.
Peer-reviewed population-based longitudinal cohort · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · 2022
Claire A. Hoffmire, Shelby Borowski, Brandon J. Griffin, Shira Maguen, and Dawne Vogt
Population: A post-9/11 veteran cohort assessed at 3, 9, 15, 21, and 27 months after separation.
Four suicidal-ideation trajectories were identified: resilient (90.1%), delayed onset (5.0%), remitting (2.7%), and chronic (2.2%).
Limitations: Suicidal ideation is distinct from attempts and deaths. The study did not estimate mortality or establish military mistreatment as a cause of trajectory membership.
DOI metadata, design, findings, and limitations checked November 13, 2026.
Systematic scoping review · Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association · 2025
Mikayla McAdams, Matthew W. Henninger, Katharine Bloeser, and Kelly K. McCarron
Population: Sixteen eligible publications examining institutional betrayal in military and veteran populations.
The reviewed literature associated institutional betrayal with increased psychiatric symptoms and clinical features in studied military and veteran populations.
Limitations: The literature primarily focused on military sexual trauma. A scoping review maps evidence but does not establish causation; more research on nonsexual workplace mistreatment and standardized measurement is needed.
Metadata, review design, population, findings, and limitations checked November 13, 2026.
The human cost of military service
Between 2021 and 2024, 26,516 veterans died by suicide in the latest VA national data series.
Each life represents a person whose absence continues to affect families, friends, and communities.
Research has identified associations between military bullying, hazing, institutional betrayal, and psychological distress. But significant questions remain about how these experiences influence veterans after separation.
Understanding those connections is essential to advancing evidence-based prevention, improving institutional responses, and supporting those who have served.
The Uniform May Come Off. The Burden May Remain.
Service may end. The responsibility to pursue accountability does not have to.
Veteran support resources
If you are a service member, veteran, or someone supporting a person in crisis, confidential assistance is available.
Veterans Crisis Line — free, confidential, 24/7
Dial 988, then press 1 · Text 838255. For service members, veterans, and their families.
The Formation Accountability Project is not an emergency response service, mental health provider, official investigative authority, or protected whistleblower disclosure channel.
